Lesson 32: Punctuation

Apostrophes

The apostrophe (’) is used in three ways:

1. To show possession (ownership)
2. To show plural forms
3. To show where a letter or number has been omitted

Let’s examine each guideline in depth.

1. Use an apostrophe to show possession.

_ With singular nouns or pronouns not ending in s, add an apostrophe and an s.
· a rocket a rocket’s red glare
· a flag a flag’s stripes
· someone someone’s wish
· anyone anyone’s game


_ With singular nouns ending in s, add an apostrophe and an s.
· James James’s car
· waitress waitress’s suggestion

_ If the new word is hard to say, leave off the s.
· James’ car waitresses’ suggestion


_ With plural nouns not ending in s, add an apostrophe and an s.
· men men’s shoes
· people people’s feelings

_ With plural nouns ending in s, add an apostrophe after the s.
· several computers several computers’ hard drives
· three teachers three teachers’ lesson plans


If you are having difficulty deciding where to put the apostrophe and whether to add an s, try following these two steps:

_ To figure out if ownership is involved, ask yourself: “To whom does it belong?”
_ If the answer is a singular noun or pronoun, follow that rule. If it’s a plural noun, follow that rule.

You have the phrase “my friends party.”
Ask: To whom does the party belong?
Answer: It belongs to my friend. Friend is singular. Therefore, the phrase reads: “My friend’s party.”


2. Use an apostrophe to show plural forms.

_ Use an apostrophe and s to show the plural of a number, symbol, or letter, or words used to name themselves.
· three 7’s
· two ?’s
· your u’s look like w’s

There are too many distracting like’s and um’s in her speech.


3. Use an apostrophe to show where a letter or number has been omitted.

_ Use an apostrophe to show where letters have been left out of contractions.

Recall that contractions are two words combined. When you contract words, add an apostrophe in the space where the letters have been taken out.
· cannot can’t
· I will I’ll

_ Use an apostrophe to show numbers have been left out of a date.
the ’70s the ’90s


Colons

1. Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list. Remember that an independent clause is a complete sentence.

The colon is two dots, one on top of each other, like this (:).

If you really want to lose weight, you must give up the following sweets: cake, pie, candy, and cookies.


2. Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a quotation.

Robert Lawson speaks impatiently of the good intentions that direct the current trends in children’s books: “Some of this scattered band may be educators or psychologists or critics, but they are all animated by a ruthless determination to do children good through their books; it is these people who start the theories and fads that are the bane of authors and illustrators and editors and a pain in the neck to children.” (Fenner, 47)


3. Use a colon before the part of a sentence that explains what has
just been stated.

Our store has a fixed policy: We will not be undersold.


4. Use a colon after the salutation of a business letter.
· Dear Dr. Lewis:
· To Whom It May Concern:


5. Use a colon to distinguish chapter from verse in a Biblical citation,
hours from minutes, and titles from subtitles.

· Song of Songs 4:15
· 10:15 A.M.
· Eating Healthy: A Complete Guide

Commas

Commas are the most frequently used marks of punctuation in English. In fact, commas occur in writing twice as often as all other marks of punctuation combined!

Commas tell us how to read and understand sentences, because they tell us where to pause.

A correctly placed comma helps move readers from the beginning of a sentence to the end.

Here’s the overall comma alert:

As you write, don’t add commas just because you paused in your reading. Since everyone pauses at different times, a pause isn’t a reliable way to judge comma use. Instead, rely on the rules that govern comma use.

And here are those guidelines:

1. Use a comma to set off parts of a sentence.

Use a comma to separate parts of a compound sentence.
· Use the comma before the coordinating conjunction.

The movie was sold out, so we decided to have an early
dinner.

The movie was a blockbuster, but we arrived early
enough to get seats.

Our friends are easy-going, and they don’t get upset
when plans change.


· Use a comma to set off dialogue.

Martha said, “This movie won an Academy Award.”

“This movie,” Martha said, “won an Academy Award.”

“This movie won an Academy Award,” Martha said.


· Use a comma to separate the parts of an address. Do not use a comma before the zip code in an address.

Rick lives at 163 East Plains Drive, Boston, MA 89012


2. Use a comma after introductory and concluding expressions.

_ Use a comma after an introductory word.

· Yes, I will be coming to the retirement party.
· However, I won’t be able to bring a macaroni salad.


_ Use a comma after an introductory phrase.

· To get a good night’s sleep, you should practice relaxation techniques.
· Beginning tomorrow, the store will be open until midnight.


_ Use a comma after an introductory clause.
· Although the sky is overcast, I don’t think that it will rain this afternoon.
· Since you can’t do the dishes, could you please walk the dog tonight?


_ Use a comma after the greeting of an informal letter.
· Dear Mom, Dear Mickey,


_ Use a comma at the close of any letter.
· Yours truly, Sincerely,



3. Use a comma after interrupting words and expressions.

_ Use a comma to set off interrupting words and expressions.
· The State University of New York, did you know, has 64 campuses scattered across New York State.


_ Use a comma to set off words of direct address (words that tell to whom a remark is addressed).
· Nanci, please clean up your room.
· Please clean up your room, Nanci.


_ Use a comma with names and titles.
· Ms. Barbara Gilson, Editorial Director
· Laurie Rozakis, Ph.D.


_ Use a comma to set off words in apposition (words that give additional information about the preceding or following word or expression).
· A good eater, my baby will be off the bottle soon.
· My baby, a good eater, will be off the bottle soon.


_ Use a comma to set off a nonessential clause (a clause that can be omitted without changing the sentence’s basic meaning).
· Elizabeth II, who was born in 1926 in London, is the queen of England.
· Prince Charles, Elizabeth’s first child, was born in 1948.


_ Use a comma to separate items in a series. The comma before and in a series of items is optional.
· The store had a sale on hot dogs, watermelon, and paper plates.



4. Use commas to prevent misreading.

_ Use a comma to clarify any potentially confusing sentences.
Confusing: Those who can practice many hours every day.
Clear: Those who can, practice many hours every day.
Rewritten: Those who can practice, do so many hours every day.


Confusing: Luisa dressed and sang for an enthusiastic crowd.
Clear: Luisa dressed, and sang for an enthusiastic crowd.
Rewritten: After Luisa dressed, she sang for an enthusiastic crowd.

Of course, as the rewritten examples show, you’re usually much better off revising the sentences so there is no possibility of your audience misreading your words.


5. Use commas with numbers. Do not use commas when writing telephone numbers, page numbers, or years.

_ Use a comma between the day of the month and the year.
· December 7, 1941 July 20, 1969

_ Use commas to show thousands, millions, and so on.
· 5,000 50,000 500,000 5,000,000



Dashes

A dash (—) is not the same as a hyphen. The dash, or a pair of dashes, lets you interrupt a sentence to add emphasis with additional information. Use dashes lightly or you risk creating a breathless, overly informal style.

Use a dash to emphasize an example, a definition, or a contrast.

· Two of the strongest animals in the jungle—the elephant and gorilla—are vegetarians.
· Two of the strongest animals in the jungle are vegetarians—the elephant and gorilla.


Exclamation Marks

Use an exclamation mark after an exclamatory sentence.
· How dare you say that to me!
· You can’t possibly go out wearing that dress!


Hyphens

A hyphen (-) is smaller than a dash. Use a hyphen to show a break in words. Traditionally, a hyphen was used to show a word break at the end of a line.

However, modern computer software has virtually eliminated this use of the hyphen.

1. Use a hyphen in certain compound nouns.
· pint-sized great-grandmother

2. Use hyphens in written-out fractions and in written-out compound numbers from twentyone to ninety-nine.
· one-half fifty-five

Periods

1. Use a period after a complete sentence.
· The shrimp’s heart is in its head.
· In the Arctic, the sun sometimes appears to be square.

2. Use a period after most abbreviations and initials. If an abbreviation comes at the end of a sentence, do not add another period.
· Dr. Ms. Jr. John F. Kennedy

3. Don’t use a period after acronyms.
· CNN ABC CBS

4. Use a period after each Roman numeral, letter, or number in an outline.
I.
A.
B.
1.
2.


Question Marks

Use a question mark after a question.
· Where is the complaint desk?
· Will the store be open late tonight?

Quotation Marks

1. Use quotation marks to set off a speaker’s exact words.
· “Did you eat the entire bag of chips?” Debbie squealed.

2. Use quotation marks to set off the titles of short works such as poems, essays, songs, short stories, and magazine articles.
· “The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson (short story)
· “Self-Reliance” by Ralph Waldo Emerson (essay)
· “We’ve Only Just Begun” by the Carpenters (song)

3. Use single quotation marks to set off quoted material or the titles of short works within a quotation enclosed by double quotation marks.
· “Did you read ‘The Ransom of Red Chief’ last night?” the teacher asked.
4. Use quotation marks to set off words used for emphasis or a definition.
· The proposed “tax reform” is really nonsense.


Semicolons

A semicolon is a comma and period combined, like this (;). The semicolon’s structure shows you that the semicolon is a hybrid of a comma and a period. It’s a stronger stop than a comma but not as strong as a period.

1. Use a semicolon between closely related independent clauses when the coordinating conjunction has been left out.
· The chef cooked far too much chicken; we eagerly devoured the excess.


2. Use a semicolon between main clauses connected by conjunctive adverbs such as however, nevertheless, moreover, for example, and consequently.
· Sarah wanted to be a doctor; however, she faints at the sight of blood.


3. Use a semicolon to join independent clauses when one or both clauses contain a comma.
· Glenn, who is an accomplished musician, wanted to perform at his sister’s wedding; but he quickly discovered that Marcia, the maid of honor, had other plans for the entertainment.